Thursday, August 28, 2025
1.02 How To Think Like a Sociologist: Peter Berger's Social Construction of Reality
Action Item: For our next class, please read this excerpt from Outliers.
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Spit vial or vile spit?
Note: (This is a lesson first published in Teaching Sociology (2003) by Brouillette and Turner and updated in ASA's Trails.)
Imagine that the school was still surveillance testing for Covid.
Place some of your saliva in a spoon or a vial. Then, read about all the ways all of the ways that saliva is beneficial (For more on the health benefits of saliva, see WedMD, the NIH Library of Medicine and the ADA):
Saliva continuously moistens the linings of the mouth, throat, and general bronchial area. Saliva aids in the prevention of infection in these areas. Some cold remedies, for example, so dry out the linings that the microscopic cracks in the linings often bleed and are very susceptible to infection. Also, the admonitions of parents to their children to eat slowly and chew well is not just to prevent choking on large pieces of food. The leisurely eating of food mixes saliva with the food, which shortly thereafter is blended with the gastric acids in the stomach. This compound now sets the stage for a catalytic combination of saliva, food, and gastric juices, which produces optimal digestion. The addition of an adequate amount of saliva allows the body to extract needed nutrients throughout the digestive tract. Finally, saliva offsets the possibility of too much acid in the stomach, and therefore lessens the possibility of heartburn or ulcers.
Now, after reading about all the ways that saliva is useful, imagine that you arrived at school and student health services told you that your vial is not needed.
Big Group Discussion
Would you open the vial and take your saliva back?
Why or Why not?
Is that gross?
Why?
Simply put, the average American will be repulsed by the idea of spitting into a spoon and then swallowing it back again. However, we are constantly swallowing our own saliva all day long and there is no biological difference between the saliva in your mouth and the saliva on the spoon. However, we have learned from our society (parents, friends, media) that there is a difference between "saliva" and "spit"; Saliva is in our mouth and is not gross, whereas spit has left our mouths and is gross even if it has not changed at all biologically. This makes us feel gross; we are repulsed by spit.
In other words, the way that we have learned (from society) to think about the saliva affects how we feel about it. In his 1966 book with Thomas Luckman, Peter Berger called this idea the "Social Construction of Reality". To break the idea down:
Social - society/other peopleConstruction - createReality - our feelings/experiences
In other words, our experiences or how we feel (our reality) is created (constructed) by others (society). This is called the social construction of reality.
Social Construction of Spitting in the US
In the US most of us would consider spitting gross. However, we have learned that in some cases spitting is acceptable. For example:
- Many of us have been to baseball games and watched players spit all throughout the game. We didn't get repulsed by that.
In fact, during one World Series, Reggie Jackson averaged 19 spits per at-bat! (see this 1985 article from LA Times about baseball spitters)
- Another example is when parents or siblings use their saliva to wipe off a baby's face. We don't find that repulsive, but if a teacher even accidentally drops saliva onto a desk it becomes gross. Can you imagine a teacher who spits like a baseball player? We have been conditioned to accept spitting on the baseball field but not in a classroom. Watching a teacher spit in a classroom would feel gross and disgusting because we have learned to think that this is unacceptable/gross behavior. This can be true for many of our experiences; feelings of happiness, sorrow, stress, worry can often be created for us by our of the society.
Cross-cultural Examples of the Social Construction of Reality
Because our reaction to spitting is a creation of our society, the reaction to spitting in other societies is sometimes different - because it is a creation of a different society.
Asia
For example, different types of spitting are so common that a British sociology professor, Ross Coomber and his team spent time studying the various types of spitting and he published this paper (2013). From the BBC,
Ross Coomber, who is a professor of sociology at Plymouth University, will spend about a month visiting six Asian countries.
He said people should take historical and cultural influences into account before forming opinions about those who spit.
He added, in many nations it was an accepted part of their lifestyle.
Africa
In Africa, a study in the British Journal of Cancer identified many different spitting practices especially the ways that spit/saliva is used for healing! From the journal, there are examples of:
(1) the use of saliva in healing and medical practices,(2) the use of saliva in initiation or ritual practices and(3) the use of saliva in feeding practices.Among some ethnic groups...it has been observed that part of the healing and treatment process involves using saliva to treat different ailments:Among the Somali, saliva is used in the treatment of all forms of disease (Helander, 1988, p 111)...In Tanzania, among the Bena, for the treatment of a boil, the traditional healer chews traditional herbs (mhefefa and munepa) and subsequently uses the chewed and softened herbs to treat wounds (Culwick, 1935, p. 395)...Among the Masai of East Africa, the juice of the plant ol giloriti (Acacia abyssinica) is chewed and spit onto the wound by a healer as an astringent (Merker, 1910, p. 247)...Among the Azande of Sudan the patient's body is sucked vigorously by the traditional healer (Rattray, 1923, pp 248–250)...Also among the Igbo of Nigeria, it is observed that a traditional healer (dibia) will suck the arms, head or abdomen of a new-born baby...Among the Wolof of West Africa, when a baby is born, it is reported that an elderly woman will visit the mother and infant and subsequently give the infant a blessing by spitting on its face and kissing it....Among the Nuer of Southern Sudan, it is noted that men spit on the heads of their children on returning from trips and young girls who have not seen each other for some time spit on each other as a form of greeting (Huffman, 1931, p 87)....
South America
In Peru, shamen may use spitting to purify a person with a spiritual bath like the way this shaman did to Anthony Bordain:
The point is that people have learned what to expect from their social groups and those expectations shape how individuals react to situations. Related to this is the Thomas Theorum which was published by the University of Chicago Professors William Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas. The Thomas Theorum says,
"If people define situations as real, then they are real in their consequences."
2. Which example of saliva being used around the world is most striking?
3. Explain Berger's idea of the social construction of reality.
Other Examples of the Social Construction of Reality:
"Bath Rooms" as a Social Construction
Please do not let the example of spit/saliva make you think that the rest of the world is gross while our culture is normal. Instead, there is no objective normal, there is only the way that each society has affected it's people to feel. For example, here is an example that you might not realize about how another culture would be grossed out by American culture. The Japanese would be grossed out by the typical American bathroom. In Japan, toilets are located in a different room than the shower and bath. Instead, the Japanese "bathroom" is literally a room for bathing. And not only is the toilet separate from the bathroom, but within the bathroom the shower is always separate from the bath. They see the shower for cleaning and the bath for soaking after you have cleaned. Instead, Americans freely bath their children in bathtubs and it is seen as a pleasant and cute experience. But many Japanese would feel repulsed by the idea of bathing in one's own filth.
"Food" as a social construction
Other examples of the social construction of reality are:
How would you feel about eating mountain chicken or closer to home is this recipe for Rocky Mountain oysters.
4. Can you explain, in your own words, how one of the examples above is a social construction? Just choose one: spitting, bathing, bathrooms, food.
Social Construction of Reality and Mindfulness
These cultural examples of the social construction of reality are particularly striking and, perhaps, amusing. But the social construction of reality is a perspective that can help us understand so much about our own thoughts and feelings in everyday life, and it can help us understand others who might perplex us as we think how could those people do/think/feel that?
Arlie Russell Hochschild explains that regardless of what the facts are, sociology can help us understand how other groups of people feel and perhaps, why they feel that way. This is one of the ways that sociology is so valuable in understanding our social world. The ability to understand how and why others feel the way they do can help us, at the very least - understand the different ways that people feel but also, perhaps, address the most pressing polarized ideas plaguing our society. Regardless of whether we believe people are justified in their feelings, the social construction of reality can help us understand what those feelings are, how they experience the world and perhaps why they have those feelings.
In Conclusion
What is Berger's Social Construction of Reality?
Can you apply it to your own life?
5. Think about something from your own life; your religion, sports, fashion, college (or being a college student), or something else. What are some feelings you have about this that you might share with other people/especially strangers? How are your feelings/experiences shaped by what you have learned from people/society?
One example of the social construction of reality is how we feel about our experience in the classroom and in the stadium; academically and athletically. We might be around the same students on the same campus but we have constructed a way of acting and feeling that is very different in these situations.
What the expectations of behavior are for the classroom?
What if the classroom was more like the basketball stadium? Here are some ideas from Loyola basketball games:
- What if when students were answering questions, I put distractions up on the data projector?
- What if when students got a question wrong, the whole class shouted, "You let the whole class down!"?
- Or what if we took a break with 4 minutes left in class and did the swag surf?
- Other ideas might include: clapping for each other and high-fiving, talking smack, holding up signs in class, etc...
Here are some humorous takes on this idea:
Additional Reading:
Action Item: For our next class, please read this excerpt from Outliers.
Meditation 1: Listen for Where the Ringing Ends and the Silence Begins
Listen for where the ringing ends and the silence begins.
This will force your mind to tune into the present moment. Be aware of the moment you are in; do not surrender this present moment to the past or the future. Let this remind you to turn off distractions that pull your attention from being in the moment.
From Medium,
Are you listening?
Do you take the time to simply stop and listen — to yourself?
Our world has so many distractions. Some are important. Most can be a total waste of time and genuinely rob us of who we are meant to be.
Distractions rob us of our ability to be at our best. Research indicates that silence gives us the space to be creative and think deeply about what matters. And yet, where do we find silence today? And, do we even want to experience silence? Modern studies indicate we do not. Why?
Our brains are constantly seeking dopamine. These distractions can use up all of our time and keep us from knowing what we should spend our limited and precious time on. What is the solution? Silence is our best hope for success.
Silence speaks the international language of reflection. In many ways, it allows us to become more self-aware, to think about profound and trivial matters. Lawrence Durrell, a British author, said, "Does not everything depend on the interpretation of the silence around us?" Most of us have experienced conflict that can arise from a lack of restraint in speech. Are there such faults associated with silence? Gandhi said, "It is better in prayer to have a heart without words than words without a heart." If you see the wind in its calmness, it has a peaceful and pleasurable quality to it but the same wind once in motion can turn violent in stormy weathers. The same can be said of words.
From Time magazine,
Across disciplines—from neuroscience to psychology to cardiology—there’s growing consensus that noise is a serious threat to our health and cognition. And that silence is something truly vital—particularly for the brain.
“Noises cause stress, especially if we have little or no control over them,” explains Mathias Basner, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania who specializes in sound processing and rest. “The body will excrete stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol that lead to changes in the composition of our blood—and of our blood vessels, which actually have been shown to be stiffer after a single night of noise exposure,” Basner says.
Tuesday, August 26, 2025
1.01 Welcome, Introductions and Mindfulness
Please create a Menti.com account and add the code for today's lesson.
If you did not have a chance yet, please complete these tasks (linked at https://sociologysal.blogspot.com/ also linked in sakai, but worth bookmarking for this semester):
Student Demographics SurveyI want to get to know each of you better as an individual, so please answer this demographic survey. Please know that all of the information is private and only for me to see so share as much info as you are comfortable sharing.Syllabus
Please read the syllabus.
Sakai Gradebook
Please upload a picture to Sakai so that I can see your picture in the gradebook.
As the first day began, I said, "Let's get started."
Then, we sat in silence. Sitting in silence was awkward and unusual for most of us. Some students felt the need to fill the silence with a comment or a joke. Clearly, this is not the way most of us are used to beginning a class, especially the first one of the semester.
What’s happening here? What are all of the thoughts that came to mind as I sat here in silence?
What’s happening here? What are all of the thoughts that came to mind as I sat here in silence?
Sociology of silence
I like beginning the semester like this for two reasons. First, I use this to show that most students already think sociologically, albeit in a simplified manner. Sociologists analyze groups of people and how the people are shaped by the groups of which they are a part. You have been a part of dozens of classes over the years. You have seen firsthand how these classes begin every semester. Nearly every class you have been in has started with the teacher standing in front of you and saying this is what you should or shouldn't do, etc... From participating in all of these first classes, you have begun to expect certain things from them. That is, loosely, what sociologists do; analyze people in groups and look for patterns of behavior and then analyze how those patterns affect people.
Unlearning what you have learned
Secondly, the silence is also a critique of modern education. Education is a social institution. Sociologists study institutions and how they affect people. This critique of education came to me from Bernard McGrane's Book The Un-TV and the 10MPH Car. McGrane makes the case that students have been trained to follow and become good at school - but not at learning. Their curiosity and excitement for learning has been squashed by a system that rewards docility and conformity. Rather than taking initiative for their own learning, students expect the teacher to provide them with exactly what they need - "Just tell me what to do," is the attitude.My class will ask students to engage in the learning; take part in the process. Our class will also ask students to share their own experiences and relate them to sociology. We all learn from each other. We are all both teacher and student.
Keep a beginner's mind, an empty cup.
A meditation on silence.
Other impacts of silence.
What are the other ways we have learned to be silent and passive?
Checkout teacher Clint Smith speaking at a TED Talk about silence. It is often our own silences that speak louder than our words. This is especially true in a culture that teaches you to be a follower; to sit down and shut up and conform. Watch that video.
Think about the speaker's message. I want you to find your voice. To learn who you are as a person and to learn to speak up for what you believe in in an educated and meaningful way.
Start of class meditation - meditation number one
Be Present: Mindfulness
Mindfulness is an awareness. To start each class, I use a mindfulness meditation. I will ring a bell to signal that we are starting class. This is a reminder to center your thoughts and limit distractions. This present moment is a gift (that's why it's called the present!) I want you to be in this moment. I will also give you a thought to meditate on and help you develop your own personal mindfulness.
Mindfulness and Learning
Being mindful means having an appreciation and a focus for the present moment. In this case, we are in class, together. Be present. I value your presence and I feel that each of you can be a teacher for all of us - we are all students and teachers of each other! There is a lot of evidence that electronic devices and social media are a distraction for not only you but for those around you. One study calls social media the second-hand smoke of learning. So, please be mindful of your presence in class.
Introducing...The Class
Syllabus
Importance of college syllabus in general
Syllabus
What questions do you need answered to be confident that you can do well in the class?
Fired Up? [Ready to Go!] come to class each day fired up and ready to go.
Today's lesson:
I had you fill out the survey above because I wanted to get to know you as an individual. My question now is, are you, in fact, an individual? What makes you an individual?
Introducing You...
Introduce yourself to one or two of your peers. Please say your name and where you are from and then share:
1. Do you think you are an individual? Why or why not? What makes you unique?
2. What do you think it means to be an individual?
If you are absent from class, the Google Form for this lesson is here. Absent students must fill out the Google form to even be considered for participation credit. If you are present in class, you do not have to do the Google Form.
Big Group Discussion: Are you an individual?
At first glance, it might seem like you are unique. In my case, I am a Loyola University graduate, a professor and a Chicagoan; I like basketball, the Cubs, skiing, mountain biking, golfing, gardening, and cooking. I am a husband and I have three daughters. All of this might make me sound unique, but all of it also is a result of my connection to others and at the same time, it connects me to others. We are intimately shaped by other people and society at large, but our culture's fascination with individuality often hides this connection. Sociology will help us explore this reality.
3.2 After you answer that, think even more creatively about who those people are that have made it possible for you to be here today.
Introduce yourself to one or two different peers. Please say your name and where you are from and then share:
Small groups: Share the people that you came up with. What was one answer that someone said that you had not thought of?
Thanks A Thousand
4. What are the most important groups in your life? What Groups shape you or define your identity?
Mindfulness and Sociology
How many different people did you come up with? Did you think of your parents? Probably. How about your grandparents or great-grandparents? How about the people who built the roads or the engineers who designed them? The architects who built the building you are sitting in? The doctors who helped you stay healthy until you reached this age or the dozens of teachers who have taught you over the years. There are so many people who have affected your ability to be here and now. Sociology will make us aware of our connections to other people.
READ this excerpt from the first chapter of Michael Schwalbe’s book, The Sociologically Examined Life. Schwalbe explains that an awareness of our connection to others is "Sociological Mindfulness." Throughout our class, you will see that sociological mindfulness is woven into the lessons and assessments.
Sociological Mindfulness is also all of the people that we influence in society. We are both products and agents of society.
Conclusion (What you should be able to do/explain after this lesson and what the final assignment will ask you to do):
- Why is the syllabus important?
- What do sociologists study?
- What is sociological mindfulness?
- Why does sociological mindfulness matter?
Sunday, August 24, 2025
0.1 An Invitation to Sociology
Hello Sociology Scholars!
This class will provide you an introduction to sociology that will hopefully and unabashedly pique your interest in the discipline. And even if sociology does not become a focus of your studies, this course will still provide insight to whatever you choose to study whether it is education, medicine, business, or art to name a few. And, more importantly, this course will provide you with a more insightful understanding of your own growth as a person as well as a better understanding of the diverse people you interact with.
Are you fired up? Get ready to go! 😁
Action Items:
There are a few tasks that I would like you to complete before our first class:
Student Demographics Survey
I want to get to know each of you better as an individual, so please answer this demographic survey. Please know that all of the information is private and only for me to see so share as much info as you are comfortable sharing.
Syllabus
Please read the syllabus.
Sakai Gradebook
Please upload a picture to Sakai so that I can see your picture in the gradebook.
Christopher Salituro
Adjunct Faculty
Sociology Department
Loyola University Chicago Alumnus 1996, 2004
Go forth and set the world on fire!
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