Schedule:
Next Wednesday we have lesson on masculinity.
After our class, I will post the 3rd midterm assessment about inequality - that is due by Friday Apr25.
I will also post the qualitative assessment for inequality in case you want to do that.
Lastly - our final class will be Friday Apr 25.
Final exam will be due (but you do NOT have to be here) on the day and time set by Loyola for this class (Friday and Thursday)
Today's Lesson: Inequality and The Construction of Femininity
Here is the Google Form for this lesson.
For starters, without looking ahead please answer these 4 questions:
1. What does "like a girl" mean? If someone says you do something "like a girl" what is it implying?
2. List all the steps YOU take, on a daily basis, to prevent yourselves from being sexually assaulted.
3. Do you know someone who is affected by body image issues? Without using any names describe their situation.
4. What does it mean for someone to be a feminist? Please answer honestly, based on your understanding of what a "feminist" is.
5. Have you ever heard of the "gender pay gap"?
5b. To the best of your knowledge, do women earn less money than men?
How the binary puts females at risk in our culture
"Like a girl"
The denigration of women and misogyny affect both women and men. Watch the add below from Always:
Gender is often seen as a binary in the US which pushes males and females to opposite ends of a spectrum forcing them into narrow boxes that define what it means to be feminine and masculine. This lesson will explore some of the ways that females are shaped and especially at risk because of the binary
Gender Pay Gap and Work
Much has been written about the gender pay gap. Sociologists have examined the income of females compared to males and through a number of different studies showing females are paid less (about 80%) than what males are paid. Because of this widely studied disparity, the American Sociological Association published a 2019 public policy recommendation that concluded,
...a woman working fulltime, year-round in 2017 was typically paid just 80 cents for every dollar paid to a man working full-time, year-round.... Gender wage gaps persist in all 50 states and in nearly every occupation. Significant wage gaps also exist for mothers compared to fathers, LGBTQ women compared with men, and women with disabilities compared to men with disabilities. Skeptics of the wage gap contend that it is due to differences in education levels or the kinds of jobs that women choose. But studies show that at the very beginning of a woman’s career, just one year after college graduation, women working full time were paid only 82% of what their male colleagues earned and ... that wage gaps grow over time. For women overall, even when accounting for factors like unionization status, education, occupation, industry, work experience, region, and race, 38% of the wage gap remains unexplained. Data make clear that discrimination— based on conscious and unconscious stereotypes—is a major cause of this unexplained gap. A recent experiment revealed, for example, that when presented with identical resumes, one with the name John and the other with the name Jennifer, science professors offered the male applicant for a lab manager position a salary of nearly $4,000 more, additional career mentoring, and judged him to be significantly more competent and hirable. When women lose out on earnings because of discrimination, families and the economy suffer.
For more info, see the Introduction to Sociology textbook (2019) from Open Stax, chapter 12.2:
- Evidence of gender stratification is especially keen within the economic realm. Despite making up nearly half (49.8 percent) of payroll employment, men vastly outnumber women in authoritative, powerful, and, therefore, high-earning jobs (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).
- Even when a woman’s employment status is equal to a man’s, she will generally make only 77 cents for every dollar made by her male counterpart (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).
- Women in the paid labor force also still do the majority of the unpaid work at home. On an average day, 84 percent of women (compared to 67 percent of men) spend time doing household management activities (U.S. Census Bureau 2011). This double duty keeps working women in a subordinate role in the family structure (Hochschild and Machung 1989).
For a more detailed examination of gender and work see The Gender Pay Gap from the Washington Post (Try this link and login with your LUC credentials) which does a terrific job of explaining the dynamics and nuances that lead to unequal pay for women. (If the link doesn't work, see the graphics below but here is a copy of the article without interactive graphics).
For more, see this post,
"Like a girl"
The denigration of women and misogyny affect both women and men. Watch the add below from Always:
Note how both the females and the males act when they are "acting like a girl." Then, note how they act when they are told to do the action how they really would. The commercial that is trying to help redefine femininity from Always is also available here from Time Magazine.
The promotion of masculine traits above feminine ones leads to denigrating of all things feminine. This binary doesn't allow for individuals to be who they really are. Instead, it pushes males and females to opposite poles with opposing traits. And the binary's message is, if you are a male, you can't be anything considered feminine. This means males deny their own humanity because they cannot be caring, empathetic, emotional, vulnerable or dependent - all of which are human traits.
5. How do the people act when they are told to do something "like a girl?" How might this affect society's view of females?
Sexual Assault and Females - How are women at risk for sexual assault?
The objectification of women and the denigration of all things female puts women at risk physically. Males are socialized to be aggressive and to see women as passive objects. This puts women at risk of sexual assault and puts them on the defensive. Men may not realize this because they do not have to think about it. But for women, this is something that is conscious. For number 2 at the start of this lesson, how many precautions did you list? Usually, males have very few, if any, but women can list dozens. Read this list from Huffington Post. How many of the actions have you taken?
What's wrong with women protecting themselves? There's nothing wrong with all of us taking precautions to be sure that we are safe. However, the emphasis on women protecting themselves takes the onus off males to not intimidate, harass or assault women. Not only is this victim-blaming females, but it is also degrading to males by insinuating that males are animalistic and immoral. Watch the video below that shows a woman walking in NYC.
CatcallsofNY is an instagram feed highlights the ways people are fighting back against street harrassment.
The promotion of masculine traits above feminine ones leads to denigrating of all things feminine. This binary doesn't allow for individuals to be who they really are. Instead, it pushes males and females to opposite poles with opposing traits. And the binary's message is, if you are a male, you can't be anything considered feminine. This means males deny their own humanity because they cannot be caring, empathetic, emotional, vulnerable or dependent - all of which are human traits.
5. How do the people act when they are told to do something "like a girl?" How might this affect society's view of females?
Sexual Assault and Females - How are women at risk for sexual assault?
The objectification of women and the denigration of all things female puts women at risk physically. Males are socialized to be aggressive and to see women as passive objects. This puts women at risk of sexual assault and puts them on the defensive. Men may not realize this because they do not have to think about it. But for women, this is something that is conscious. For number 2 at the start of this lesson, how many precautions did you list? Usually, males have very few, if any, but women can list dozens. Read this list from Huffington Post. How many of the actions have you taken?
What's wrong with women protecting themselves? There's nothing wrong with all of us taking precautions to be sure that we are safe. However, the emphasis on women protecting themselves takes the onus off males to not intimidate, harass or assault women. Not only is this victim-blaming females, but it is also degrading to males by insinuating that males are animalistic and immoral. Watch the video below that shows a woman walking in NYC.
CatcallsofNY is an instagram feed highlights the ways people are fighting back against street harrassment.
Here is a similar video from Inside Edition in Venice Beach, CA (2015).
Here is another video from Inside Edition in NYC (2016).
Here is an Iris video that shows dads reacting to their daughters getting harassed on the street.
And here is a video produced by Cosmopolitan in NYC that aired on GMA (2015).
The cast of GMA makes an important point of distinguishing between a compliment and harassment. But the cast also shows how difficult it is to change these cultural dysfunctions.
But sexual harassment is not just catcalls by random strangers on the street, it happens to women at work from people they know. This 2012 research from Uggin, McLaughlin, and Blackstone concludes that much harassment at work
...can serve as an equalizer against women in power, motivated more by control and domination than by sexual desire. Interviews point to social isolation as a mechanism linking harassment to gender nonconformity and women’s authority, particularly in male-dominated work settings.
And sexual harassment is so much a part of U.S. culture that a President of the United States could speak openly about harassing women and still be elected. The Washington Post documents all of the instances of how Trump has demeaned women since 2015.
For more on sexual assault and college campus see this post.
6. What was the most disturbing part of the video for you?
7. Was there anything in the above information that was helpful/eye-opening?
Femininity and body image - How are women socialized to think about their "self"?
For number 3 at the beginning of this post, most women can name multiple people they know who have wrestled with body image issues or eating disorders.
Watch this video called Onslaught from the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty which highlights the ways girls are socialized by media.
Read this post from the Society Pages which highlights how females are objectified in the media. Please click the link and read the post. From the post,
8. Which ad from the Society Pages link above stood out to you as being particularly degrading or objectifying?
Do you know Amy?
This video shows Amy not feeling like hanging out.
There are numerous studies showing that this is true for significant numbers of young women. Look at the research below and think about whether this has been true in your life. Do you know girls who struggle with self-esteem, body image and eating/dieting disorders? If you don't, can you at least see how the media is constructing a reality for girls?
Research about the effects of media socialization on females
"...after interacting with attractive peers, the women's perceptions of their own appearance changed, whereas interacting with family members did not have any bearing on their body image....Social media engagement with attractive peers increases negative state body image," explain the researchers. 2018 research — led by Jennifer Mills, an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at York University in Toronto, Canada, and Jacqueline Hogue, a Ph.D. student in the department's Clinical Program — examined the effects of social media on the self-perceived body image of young women. Mills and Hogue published their findings in the journal Body Image. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323725.php
Thin Ads + Low Body Image = Stress?
Ads Showing Skinny Models Might Hurt Self-Worth In Vulnerable Young Women Viewing ads of super-skinny models may make young women feel worse about themselves, especially if they have body image problems, according to a new study. Researcher Gayle Bessenoff, Ph.D., reports the findings in Psychology of Women Quarterly. Bessenoff is an assistant professor in the University of Connecticut's psychology department.
What Studies Show: Links Between Media and Self Esteem in Girls Many studies conclude that there is clearly a link between young women’s self esteem and the media. *The Journal of Research on Adolesence, in a study of body image and self esteem (Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles, Helga Dittmar - 2005), imparts that the the declining self esteem that girls often experience entering into adolescence is in part due to social comparison with media models. In a 2006 study of girls' body satisfaction and self esteem from the American Psychological Association (Hayley Dohnt,, Marika Tiggemann), research also illustrates that media creates a negative influence on girls' body images and self-esteem – particularly in regard to acceptable levels of thinness.
A particularly alarming media trend is the sexualization of women at younger and younger ages. Medical News Today discusses how suggestive images of young women negatively affect girls self-esteem, playing a role in onset of depression, eating disorders, and low-self-esteem.
Sexualization Of Girls Is Linked To Common Mental Health Problems In Girls And Women Science Daily (Feb. 20, 2007) — A report of the American Psychological Association (APA) released today found evidence that the proliferation of sexualized images of girls and young women in advertising, merchandising, and media is harmful to girls' self-image and healthy development.
Dying to Fit In- Literally! Learning to Love Our Bodies and Ourselves By Christine Hartline, MA In the United States approximately 10% of girls and women (numbering up to 10 million) are suffering from diagnosed eating disorders. Of these at least 50,000 will die as a direct result! Recent data reported by the American Psychiatric Association suggests that of all psychiatric disorders, the greatest excess of patient mortality due to natural and unnatural causes is associated with eating disorders and substance abuse.
Teen Body Image Media images have a strong effect on people's body image, particularly for women, because the ideals the media presents for women are farther from the average woman's body. The Social Issues Research Centre (SIRC) reports that in 1972, the ideal woman shown in the media (models, movie stars, etc.) weighed less than the average woman, yes, but only by 8%. By the late 90s, the difference had become 23%... In one study from Harvard University reported by (SIRC), it was found that by age 17, 7 out of 10 teens have been on a diet and as many as 80% of teens may have a negative body image...The onset of eating disorders for 86% of people is before they finish their teens.
Finally, watch the powerful video below about how people are made to think about themselves and how different that can be from reality.
9. Is the research above and the video convincing evidence that females are at risk because of gendered expectations? Any other questions?
Femininity and body image - How are women socialized to think about their "self"?
For number 3 at the beginning of this post, most women can name multiple people they know who have wrestled with body image issues or eating disorders.
Watch this video called Onslaught from the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty which highlights the ways girls are socialized by media.
Read this post from the Society Pages which highlights how females are objectified in the media. Please click the link and read the post. From the post,
The damage caused by widespread female objectification in popular culture is not just theoretical. We now have over ten years of research showing that living in an objectifying society is highly toxic for girls and women, as is described in Part 2 of this series.
Do you know Amy?
This video shows Amy not feeling like hanging out.
There are numerous studies showing that this is true for significant numbers of young women. Look at the research below and think about whether this has been true in your life. Do you know girls who struggle with self-esteem, body image and eating/dieting disorders? If you don't, can you at least see how the media is constructing a reality for girls?
Research about the effects of media socialization on females
"...after interacting with attractive peers, the women's perceptions of their own appearance changed, whereas interacting with family members did not have any bearing on their body image....Social media engagement with attractive peers increases negative state body image," explain the researchers. 2018 research — led by Jennifer Mills, an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at York University in Toronto, Canada, and Jacqueline Hogue, a Ph.D. student in the department's Clinical Program — examined the effects of social media on the self-perceived body image of young women. Mills and Hogue published their findings in the journal Body Image. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323725.php
Thin Ads + Low Body Image = Stress?
Ads Showing Skinny Models Might Hurt Self-Worth In Vulnerable Young Women Viewing ads of super-skinny models may make young women feel worse about themselves, especially if they have body image problems, according to a new study. Researcher Gayle Bessenoff, Ph.D., reports the findings in Psychology of Women Quarterly. Bessenoff is an assistant professor in the University of Connecticut's psychology department.
What Studies Show: Links Between Media and Self Esteem in Girls Many studies conclude that there is clearly a link between young women’s self esteem and the media. *The Journal of Research on Adolesence, in a study of body image and self esteem (Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles, Helga Dittmar - 2005), imparts that the the declining self esteem that girls often experience entering into adolescence is in part due to social comparison with media models. In a 2006 study of girls' body satisfaction and self esteem from the American Psychological Association (Hayley Dohnt,, Marika Tiggemann), research also illustrates that media creates a negative influence on girls' body images and self-esteem – particularly in regard to acceptable levels of thinness.
A particularly alarming media trend is the sexualization of women at younger and younger ages. Medical News Today discusses how suggestive images of young women negatively affect girls self-esteem, playing a role in onset of depression, eating disorders, and low-self-esteem.
Sexualization Of Girls Is Linked To Common Mental Health Problems In Girls And Women Science Daily (Feb. 20, 2007) — A report of the American Psychological Association (APA) released today found evidence that the proliferation of sexualized images of girls and young women in advertising, merchandising, and media is harmful to girls' self-image and healthy development.
Dying to Fit In- Literally! Learning to Love Our Bodies and Ourselves By Christine Hartline, MA In the United States approximately 10% of girls and women (numbering up to 10 million) are suffering from diagnosed eating disorders. Of these at least 50,000 will die as a direct result! Recent data reported by the American Psychiatric Association suggests that of all psychiatric disorders, the greatest excess of patient mortality due to natural and unnatural causes is associated with eating disorders and substance abuse.
Teen Body Image Media images have a strong effect on people's body image, particularly for women, because the ideals the media presents for women are farther from the average woman's body. The Social Issues Research Centre (SIRC) reports that in 1972, the ideal woman shown in the media (models, movie stars, etc.) weighed less than the average woman, yes, but only by 8%. By the late 90s, the difference had become 23%... In one study from Harvard University reported by (SIRC), it was found that by age 17, 7 out of 10 teens have been on a diet and as many as 80% of teens may have a negative body image...The onset of eating disorders for 86% of people is before they finish their teens.
Finally, watch the powerful video below about how people are made to think about themselves and how different that can be from reality.
9. Is the research above and the video convincing evidence that females are at risk because of gendered expectations? Any other questions?
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is an author and speaker from Africa. One of her Ted Talks became this short book below:
10. After reading Adichie's We Should All Be Feminists, how does she define feminism? Is this different than the way the feminism often gets defined in popular culture? If you have a chance, ask someone who is not in sociology class how what it means to be a feminist and compare this to Adichie's ideas.
Extra:
What can we do?
https://www.apa.org/topics/teens/raising-adolescent-daughter, American Psychology Association 2001
Staying connected: A guide for parents on raising an adolescent daughter: Puberty, Peer Groups, Self Esteem, Body Image, Sexuality, Emotions, Rebellion, Risk-taking, violence, money management, spirituality, setting limits
13 Ways to Boost Your Daughter's Self-Esteem: How to help girls build confidence based on what they can do, not what they look like.https://childmind.org/article/13-ways-to-boost-your-daughters-self-esteem/, Childmind Institute
How to Raise a Self-Confident Girl
