This lesson is the beginning of our next social inequality - race. For homework, please download the excerpt from Omi and Winant's Racial Formation. Please read it and be ready to discuss it for our next class.
For today's lesson, please read the introductory paragraph below.
Recall our earlier unit on the sociological perspective. We learned that sociology began with the study of inequality created by industrial society. At first, the focus of inequality was on social class and power. But not long after, American sociologists were applying the study to racial identity. That will be the focus for this unit. During the sociological perspective unit, we also learned that sociology sometimes "makes the familiar strange." It sheds light on areas of our life that we never questioned before. Learning sociology can be an eye-opening experience that is sometimes difficult to realize. It has been my experience that this is especially true when learning about race; it may be eye-opening and may make you think about everyday life in a new way that might be uncomfortable. We also learned that society constructs a reality for how we feel and experience the world. Learning about race may challenge the previous feelings that we have had. And, finally, remember that we are like fish in water never having to question or notice the water. Racial identity is one of those cultural constructions that many of us have never questioned. Please begin by reflecting on what you have already come to understand about "race" by answering numbers 1-6 using this Google form.
On your marks...Prior Knowledge Questions:
Answer the following questions off the top of your head. Use what you have learned until now to answer.
1. What is race? Define it. What determines what race a person is?
2. Is race scientific?
3. How many races are there?
3. How many races are there?
4. Name as many of the races as you can.
5. What race are you?
6. Do you have any reluctance to discussing race?
Get set...
The Difficulty of Race
Before we begin our study, I want to acknowledge that the topic of race can be a difficult topic to discuss.
Difficult for Most Americans
First, as evidenced by the student responses to questions 1 - 6 above, race is difficult to define. Student responses vary for the number of races and what the races are. This is despite the fact that race has a long history in the United States (over 400 years, as the 1619 Project highlighted), and it was written into the U.S. Constitution. Americans have difficulty defining "race," yet, if I asked you about "race", you would know what I meant. However, when asked to define race, students have difficulty agreeing on a definition. We don't learn what race is in anatomy class or biology class or even in US history. Despite not learning about race, there is a hegemonic acceptance of what race is; Americans learn about it from a young age so they assume that they know what it is and they never question it. However, because we don't learn about it, we don't have the language to talk about it. That limits our understanding even more and contributes to anxiety when talking about it.
Especially Difficult for Whites
For question number 6 above, not only do we seem to accept the idea of race without truly understanding it, but for many Americans, they do not have to think about race in their daily lives. Because America has been a white majority country, whites have traditionally been able to safely be considered the norm. They can avoid discussing race, except when learning about it in relation to a particular situation - like in history class or when the protesters marched for George Floyd. Because of that, whites do not have to think about being white and they do not worry about being judged for being white. Whites are able to focus much more on their identity as an individual and not as a member of a racial group. So, when race becomes the topic of discussion among whites, it can be uncomfortable as something they are not used to discussing.
Difficulty Because of Fear of Label "Racist"
Finally, a third reason that race is difficult to learn about is because many whites think of racism based on the way racism became a part of the national consciousness. As America moved toward racial equality during the civil rights movement, racists were seen as violent and extreme, like the KKK; Racists were people who consciously hated minorities. This was a very basic definition of racism that often reduced people to being either not racist or racist: either good or bad. This reductionist label became a really awful label for Americans who are white. As we have learned, people have complex identities and they are multifaceted. They are not simply either racist or not. Instead, it is important to acknowledge that we all live in a society that has been historically racist, therefore we are all capable and, even likely, to exhibit behaviors and attitudes that are racist. That might be uncomfortable to acknowledge, but it should not define us. Not only are people complex and multi-faceted, but racism is as well. It can be institutional and unintentional and explicit or implicit.
As we talk about racism, try to see how people of different races are treated unequally. Try not to feel defensive or accused. This is a learning process that takes time. It was a long road for me to understand this as well. There is a good chance that everyone in this class has said something or done something that was racist. It is healthy and realistic to acknowledge that our words or actions can be racist. However, as Bryan Stevenson says in his book, Just Mercy, "Each of us is better than the worst thing we have ever done." So as we move forward, in terms of racism, focus on the words and actions and not on identity. In other words, things that we say and do may be racist, but try to refrain from defining each other's identity as "racist." Say, "talking like that is racist" or "doing that is racist" rather than saying, "that person is a racist." The latter labels an entire person's identity as racist and implies that it is unchangeable whereas identifying words, behaviors or policies as racist can help us work to change those things.
7. Do you understand why race might be difficult for many Americans to discuss? Do you think you will have difficulty discussing race? Which of the three reasons above might make it most difficult for you?
Because I recognize that race is difficult to discuss as I outline below, I want to encourage you to:
- keep a beginner mind; be open
- do not be afraid to ask questions
- when discussing racism, try to focus on words, actions and policies (as opposed to identities)
In my own experiences, as a young sociology student in undergrad, I felt uncomfortable talking about race and racism because of all of the above reasons. It was really hard for me to learn about racism without feeling like I was being accused of something wrong. I felt guilty and that made me defensive and obstinate. However, as my academic journey continued, I learned more about race and gradually I became more comfortable teaching about it. As I have taught about it over the last 20 years, I have noticed some of the same resistance to learning about race in the students that I teach. It was not until I read Robin DiAngelo's work that I had a name for the feelings that I originally had about race and the feelings that I now experience with my own students: White fragility. I want to acknowledge those feelings to help students understand the discomfort that you or your classmates might feel. Hopefully in recognizing this discomfort and understanding it, makes it easier to learn about race throughout this unit and your life.
White Fragility
Please watch DiAngelo explain her work in the 6-minute Youtube video from NBC news and also available at The Guardian.
Her website explains her work;
White people in North America live in a social environment that protects and insulates them from race-based stress. This insulated environment of racial protection builds white expectations for racial comfort while at the same time lowering the ability to tolerate racial stress. Although white racial insulation is somewhat mediated by social class (with poor and working class urban whites being generally less racially insulated than suburban or rural whites), the larger social environment insulates and protects whites as a group through institutions, cultural representations, media, school textbooks, movies, advertising, and dominant discourses. Racial stress results from an interruption to what is racially familiar. In turn, whites are often at a loss for how to respond in constructive ways., as we have not had to build the cognitive or affective skills or develop the stamina that that would allow for constructive engagement across racial divides. leading to what I refer to as White Fragility. White Fragility is a state in which even a minimum amount of racial stress becomes intolerable, triggering a range of defensive moves. These moves include the outward display of emotions such as anger, fear, and guilt, and behaviors such as argumentation, silence, and leaving the stress-inducing situation. These behaviors, in turn, function to reinstate white racial equilibrium. This book explicates the dynamics of White Fragility and how we might build our capacity in the on-going work towards racial justice.
8. How would you answer someone who asked, "Does White fragility mean that something is wrong with me because I'm white?"
In conclusion, as we begin this unit, I want to acknowledge the difficulty of discussing race and helping you to frame it so that you can be open to learning about race going forward. While the topic of race can be difficult and emotional, I want you to know that I am willing to help you understand and I want our classroom to be a safe space for understanding. Trust me and trust the process, and don't be afraid to ask questions. Be curious, not judgmental.
Some extra resources:
Watch these two humorous takes on white fragility:
And here is an SNL skit making fun of white fragility: 5 Hour Empathy PillsFrom Al Jazeera, this Newsbroke sketch is a public service announcement called "White Fragility Training: Raising Racial Awareness of White Discomfort with Racial Awareness"
Additionally, UW Madison professor Pamela Oliver's website is really helpful. Dr. Oliver has made a list of terms that explains the history and nature of racially-based terminology. Her post is continually updated here, but she also posted a PDF version of this essay on SocArXiv.
Race!
Please try this "What Race Am I?" quiz.
Debriefing the What Race Am I Quiz? above
The quiz highlights a number of realities about race:
- We assume that race is biological, but our biological assumptions do not make sense. In the case of the survey, there are people from different continents with different skin tones - there are people from every continent who have dark skin - not just Africa, and similarly, there are people with different eye shapes and hair types from all over the world too.
- Second, we often use ethnicity, nationality or heritage to mean race but this doesn't always make sense. For example, Russia is often considered a European nation and thus racially white, but large parts of Russia are located in Asia. Are these people Asian or White and what defines that?
- Lastly, this survey highlights a difficulty with race - For 160 years, the US defined race like you just did; census collectors looking at people and choosing their race. But in 1965, the census started allowing people to self-identify their own race. By this standard, we can't really know the race of any of the people in the survey unless they were asked to choose.
The anatomy and biology of race
Earlier, I asked you to try and define race based on your prior knowledge. Now, I want to clarify what race is (and is not).
First, if you have access to a biology or anatomy textbook, please use the index to look up the definition of race. If you do not have access to a biology or anatomy textbook, then please choose one of the bullet points below and examine the link for how they explain the biology of race.
- Bill Nye explains why there is no way to define race biologically.
- A 2017 article from the NY Times explains that the latest evidence from genetics is that there is not a connection between genes and race.
- Harvard School of Biomedical Sciences "there is no evidence that the groups we commonly call 'races' have distinct, unifying genetic identities. In fact, there is ample variation within races"
- The U.S. National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health published this article which explains, "Humans have much genetic diversity, but the vast majority of this diversity reflects individual uniqueness and not race."
- Race; Power of an Illusion Documentary FAQs answered by these experts.
- The American Association of Physical Anthropologists published this statement about race, including, "There is great genetic diversity within all human populations. Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogenous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past. "
- Contexts sociology blog The press release reports the results of this panel’s initial analysis of almost 500 cases. Most startlingly, it reports that FBI examiners gave inaccurate testimony in 96% of those cases.... As a 2009 review of forensic science by the National Research Council (NRC) put it, “No scientifically accepted statistics exist about the frequency with which particular characteristics of hair are distributed in the population.”
- Science Magazine "The study adds to established research undercutting old notions of race. You can’t use skin color to classify humans, any more than you can use other complex traits like height, Tishkoff says. 'There is so much diversity in Africans that there is no such thing as an African race'.”
- Science Buzz: "...there’s more variation within any racial group than there is between them...Our genes are constantly moving around the planet. We’ve had 100,000 years of genes moving and mixing and re-assorting in countless different ways. We’re always mating outside our groups. [As a result, there’s] very little variation among us."
- Live Science: there is only one human race. Our single race is independent of geographic origin, ethnicity, culture, color of skin or shape of eyes — we all share a single phenotype, the same or similar observable anatomical features and behavior - See more at livescience. "...there is only one human race. Our single race is independent of geographic origin, ethnicity, culture, color of skin or shape of eyes — we all share a single phenotype, the same or similar observable anatomical features and behavior..."
9. What does one of the scientific sources above say about using race as a category?
What is racial hegemony?
The answer to the questions at the start of this unit is that race is not a scientific term. And so neither the biology nor the anatomy textbooks even mention race. Race is not measurable in any objective way. And races are not mutually exclusive of each other; in science, this is known as discrete classification. Race is not a discrete category. However, during the 1800s, and for nearly a century afterward, scientists, including anthropologists and biologists and even sociologists, erroneously concluded that humans evolved from three distinct groups of hominids. Known as the "essentialist theory," this incorrectly posits that each group started as a "pure race" in three separate locations: Mongolia, Caucasia, and Nigeria. The theory also concludes erroneously that the three original racial groups eventually intermixed, but some individuals stayed "more pure" based on less mixing. Using the scientific data that is available to us now, biologists, doctors, anthropologists, and sociologists now know that this is NOT true. Instead of evolving separately, all humans began from a hominid in Africa and gradually spread out across the globe. However, this theory pervaded U.S. thinking so widely that the assumption that race is a discrete biological and scientific category continues to this day.
This acceptance of race as a real scientific category without ever questioning it is called racial hegemony. In the United States, we are so familiar with the idea of "race" that we use it all the time assuming that we know what it means, but we never stop to examine what it is. If you were asked to identify the race of students in our room, I bet you would be able to say what "race" they are, but can you say what exactly "race" is? In trying to understand race, sometimes we assume it is something that it is not. Many Americans assume it is one of the terms below. Read each of the following terms below and think about the following question:
Which of these terms have you used to define or describe race in the past? Do you have questions about any of these terms?
Operationalizing terms
Nationality is the country where someone is a citizen. For example, if your passport is from the U.S. then your nationality is the United States, often referred to as "American".
Ethnicity is a group of people linked by a common culture, ancestry and often associated with a geographic location. For example, one might say that Italians are an ethnic group. But ethnicity doesn't have to apply to a country, it can be a group like Assyrians, Deng (from the Sudan) or Roma people.
Heritage is where a person's ancestors can be traced to.
Genotype is an individual's specific combination of genes that makes up their DNA. Mitochondrial DNA can be traced back to a common ancestor. So scientifically, all humans share a common genetic lineage. This video explains that.
10. Which of the above terms have you used to define or describe race in the past? Do you have questions about any of these terms?
Note how the biology of the people in the quiz above does not reflect the people's heritage, ethnicity or nationality. For example, Russia is generally considered a European country and thus "white" even though a large portion of Russia is in Asia.
Phenotype and Race
Phenotype is the observable characteristics/traits that an individual manifests from their genotype interacting with the environment. In other words, phenotype is how we look based on both our genes and the environment. So, some people have lighter skin but in the sun it gets red, whereas others have lighter skin but in the sun it gets tan and yet others have darker skin - all of these are phenotypes.
Phenotypic Traits and Race; Humans look different, why is that not race?
Yes, humans have different phenotypes such as dark skin or curly hair. These phenotypes do come from different genetic combinations, but these combinations are not divisible into distinct groups. Instead, the divisions we create are arbitrary divisions. If you lined up all of the people in the world according to a trait, the divisions would be less obvious. It would look more like a spectrum that changes gradually, blending from one into another. Height is one example in this graphic from the American Anthropological Association, UnderstandingRace.org that shows that deciding how to categorize people is arbitrary:
Yes, humans have different phenotypes such as dark skin or curly hair. These phenotypes do come from different genetic combinations, but these combinations are not divisible into distinct groups. Instead, the divisions we create are arbitrary divisions. If you lined up all of the people in the world according to a trait, the divisions would be less obvious. It would look more like a spectrum that changes gradually, blending from one into another. Height is one example in this graphic from the American Anthropological Association, UnderstandingRace.org that shows that deciding how to categorize people is arbitrary:
Skin color, one of the most obvious phenotypes in the U.S. and often the default for socially constructing race, exists on a spectrum. America was started by Europeans who enslaved sub-Saharan Africans. These groups of people had different phenotypes. For example skin color. However, if we could line up the people from Europe all the way to sub-Saharan Africa, we would see a spectrum of skin color instead of distinct groups. The second image above shows how skin color exists on a spectrum.
Another example that demonstrates why the phenotypic trait of skin color is NOT a way to categorize people racially is from a post on the soc images blog, this artist created a palette of colors showing that human skin is much more of a spectrum than distinct groups. See this post for more about the artist and the project, including a Ted Talk.
How would you divide up the palette below into different races?
11. How would you answer someone who asked you, "Why can't skin color be used to categorize people into distinct races?"
So what is race?
Do you understand that race is not a scientific topic; it cannot be measured discretely or distinctly using any biological trait?
Other Resources to help understand what race is not:
A Scientific Explanation of Skin Color
For an explanation on the biology of skin color, the article "Skin Deep" by Nina Jablonski and George Chaplin from Scientific American explains the science behind skin color and how around the world, skin color would look more like a spectrum than distinct groups. The map below from the article explains the correlation between UV light intensity and skin color. Going back to our metaphor about the traits, do you see how the trait of skin color is a spectrum rather than distinct groups?
Nina Jablonski explains the significance of skin color in her Ted Talk here.
Anthony Peterson "What I am learning from my white grandchildren" at TED talks Antioch explains why race is NOT real but it does matter and why it's important to talk about race with children. He notes that many of us teach that race is real but it doesn't matter and that teaches children the wrong message.
Genetic Research from the Transpacific Project shows multiple maps of genetic markers around the world.
From Princeton U. Commons this map shows the spread of humans based on traceable gene mutations in mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes.
Jefferson Fish also explains how race doesn't make sense in the article titled "Mixed Blood" from Psychology Today, 1995.
For more info you can checkout the April 22, 2005 episode of Odyssey, a radio program that used to air on Chicago Public Radio. This episode about the genetics of race and if you listen carefully to the caller segment, you can hear a very interesting sociology teacher commenting. [Listen the program here (the good part is after 35:26)]
For more info you can checkout the April 22, 2005 episode of Odyssey, a radio program that used to air on Chicago Public Radio. This episode about the genetics of race and if you listen carefully to the caller segment, you can hear a very interesting sociology teacher commenting. [Listen the program here (the good part is after 35:26)]
If this lesson was interesting, you might like Anthropology 105: Human Cultural Biology which is a tier 2 science.
