1.05 The Creation of Sociology and Founding Paradigms

  Sensitive Subject Warning for today's lesson:

Sociology examines all aspects of society - including those that can be emotional.  Today's lesson briefly involves the topic of suicide.

The Creation of Sociology as an Academic Discipline; How the Sociological Perspective Got Started

The Social Construction of Reality and the Sociological Imagination are two ways of understanding how sociologists view the world, both created during the twentieth century.  But, to understand how sociology began as an academic discipline, it is necessary to look back to the 1800s.

During the Industrial Revolution, Western Europe and the United States rapidly industrialized. The disruption to society was swift, vast, and noticeable.  The industrial revolution changed the way people lived and thought about themselves.  

The industrial revolution brought about changes from:

At the time, scholars noticed the tremendous changes and the effects that they had on individuals living in these societies.  These scholars used the scientific method that was being used to study physical sciences and applied it to the study of society.  Their findings began to challenge the Enlightenment Era thinking that individuals are all simply a product of their own choices.  And so, the term sociology was first used in French (sociologie) by Auguste Comte in 1830. It comes from the combination of the Latin words socius which means "friendship, neighborliness and companionship and -ology which means the "study, science."  And so sociology is the scientific study of how people are influenced by their social groups. Three scholars of the 19th century laid the foundations for how sociology would develop.

Emile Durkheim's Structural-Functional Paradigm

 

The first paradigm we will consider is called Structural-functional.  This paradigm was created by Emile Durkheim.  One of the topics that Durkheim studied was suicide. He found that within industrial Europe, the rates of suicide varied from country to country but they also stayed stable within each country.  In other words, every year, there was a higher rate of suicides in some countries than others. So, something that seemed like an individual choice, such as suicide, was really a product of the country a person lived in. Someone living in Britain was much more likely to commit suicide than someone living in Italy.  In other words, something was happening in British society that was creating a problem for the individuals living there. Suicide was not an individual problem, it was a social one. Durkheim called these social problems dysfunctions.  

Durkheim said that societies have a structure made up of different systems that function to keep order in society.  Just like a body has different systems such as a respiratory, circulatory, digestive and nervous system, a society has different systems like family, education, economy, religion and government etc…  These systems serve a function of keeping order in society by creating a structure for stability and continuity.  Therefore, Durkheim's paradigm becomes known as structural-functional.  Durkheim says that when the structures help to make life healthy for individuals, the structures are functional, whereas structures that are not healthy for individuals are called dysfunctional.

 

In sum, The institutions/structures provide stability and continuity for individuals - like helping individuals survive and thrive. The structures help us understand what is expected of us and provide an identity and a purpose. This is functional.

Dysfunctions are when aspects of these institutions do not meet those needs and instead individuals are harmed by the dynamics of society. 

 

Any questions so far about the beginnings of sociology and Durkheim and his Structural-Functional Paradigm?  

 

 

Small Group Discussion: 

 

Pro tip -

One of the best ways to learn something is to have to teach it to someone or explain it.  This is the philosophy behind small group discussion.  Please try to explain your example to each other.  Ask questions about each other's ideas and how to apply them.  If you have trouble, call me over.

 

If you are absent, here is today's Google Form.

 

Applying the Structural Functional Paradigm

For the Lifeboat Activity that we did, a sociologist using the Structural-Functional paradigm might ask;

• How were the decisions on the boat a result of the influence of society?
• Society has influenced participants in the simulation to value usefulness, health, and youth.
• How do structures in society like education, government, family, economy influence people in society?  How are they all interrelated/contributing to this outcome?
• Though we can't see it on the boat, all of these structures have led the participants in the simulation to make similar choices. A Structural-Functionalist might research how each of those structures contributed to that.
• Are these decisions functional or working together to create a productive and sustainable society? 
• If the boat came to an agreement and all of the different groups of participants over the years are choosing similar people then there is some stability within society and general values that are agreed upon. That might be considered functional according to Durkheim.

1.  How might the paradigm apply to college?  In other words, what might a Structural-Functionalist study about college?  What questions might they be interested in studying?

Karl Marx's Conflict Paradigm

The second paradigm that emerged from a scholar studying the changes of the industrial revolution is called Conflict Paradigm which developed out of the influence of Karl Marx.  He studied the inequalities in industrial Europe and how those inequalities affected individuals.  For example, Marx found that a working-class person lived an average of 25 years less than a wealthy person.  Like Durkheim, Marx concluded that his findings were not just the result of individual choices.  Instead, people were forced to work in unhealthy conditions and forced to yield to the demands of the wealthy owners of the factories.  They had less access to healthcare, less access to healthy food and more dangerous living conditions and jobs.  Simply put, they had less power to affect their own life expectancy.  Marx's focus led sociologists to examine who had power in society and who did not.  The natural extension of that became the effects of power on groups of individuals and how those in power gained and maintained that power.  Initially, Marx's focus was on social class, especially in Europe, but early sociologists in the U.S. Applied Marx's paradigm to other inequalities in the US:

W.E.B. Dubois: Conflict Paradigm and Race

Dubois (pronounced "Do Boys") applied the conflict paradigm to race.  He was the first black scholar to be allowed to earn a PhD. from Harvard U. and a sociology student.

Alice Paul: Conflict Paradigm and Gender

Alice Paul was a sociology scholar who applied it to gender in the U.S. as she fought for women's rights to vote and she worked for women and poor immigrants at Jane Addams' Hull House in Chicago.

 

Jane Addams:  Intersection of Gender and Social Class

Oftentimes, the study of inequality and the fight for equal rights led to overlapping movements such as social class and gender led by Chicago's Jane Addams.  Addams was an influential leader in Chicago who used her sociology degree to improve the lives of Chicago's women, poor, and immigrants

Ida B. Wells: Intersection of Race and Gender

Wells applied Marx's theory to race and gender.  She was born into slavery in Mississippi but made her way to Chicago as continued to document lynchings and fight against racism and sexism.  The Association of Black Sociologists established an award in her honor (2020).

Applying the Conflict Paradigm:

A sociologist using Marx's Conflict paradigm might examine the Lifeboat simulation by asking,

Who is always treated unequally?  Why?

Who has power on the boat and Why?  And, how do they use that power?

Small Group Discussion:

2. How can you apply Marx's Conflict paradigm to college?  What questions might you ask?  What would you study/research?

Max Weber and Symbolic Interaction Paradigm

Max Weber's contribution to the development of sociology during the Industrial Revolution

Max Weber (pronounced VAY-ber) studied the development of capitalism in European countries.  He found that countries that became more Protestant also became more capitalist.  This is peculiar because religion and economics seem to be separate.  But Protestants held shared meaning with each other about their wealth and finance.  They saw living within their means and investing their money as signs that they were living righteously within their Christian beliefs.  This created an economy that was based on investment.  It led to the creation and expansion of capitalism, investing profit to make even more profit.   It might seem strange for religion to be connected to the economy, but in their interaction with each other, it was real for them.  


The development of the Symbolic Interactionist paradigm 

Building off of Weber's work, two sociologists created a third paradigm for which sociologists view the world.   Weber showed symbolic meaning in the Protestants' lives and in their everyday interaction with other people.  Stemming from Weber's work, George Herbert Mead, W. I. Thomas and Herbert Blumer all worked at the University of Chicago and focused on the shared meaning in everyday life between people.  This paradigm became known as Symbolic Interaction.  It is more focused on face-to-face interaction, or small groups, as opposed to large-scale institutions.  Much of our interaction with each other holds symbolic meaning to us.  The words we use, our body language, our clothes all hold symbolic meaning for us.  They convey an identity we have to the world. 

Examining the picture of industrial Chicago, a Symbolic Interactionist might analyze the image by asking,

Why do people stand on certain spots on the street?  Is there meaning behind who stands where?

How does this intersection stay orderly?  Who has right of way and how do they learn this?

What is everyone wearing? What does that symbolize to them?

How can you use Weber's Symbolic Interaction paradigm to analyze our lifeboat simulation?

How did the words people used affect the decisions?

What is the meaning of being labeled "elderly?" What labels/values resonated with people on the boat?

3.  How can you apply Weber's Symbolic Interaction paradigm to college?  Identify some questions that a Weberian might ask about college.

In Conclusion:

Applying the paradigms to your life

Revisit the demographic survey that you filled out at the beginning of the semester. 

Can you explain what each paradigm focuses on?  Apply each to your life:

Structural-Functional Paradigm

Look at the structures of society that you wrote about (especially family, school, work)

4.  How do the institutions in your life provide stability or structure in your life?  What institutions are most prominent in shaping you?  What function do the structures provide - in other words, what purposes do they serve in your life?  What are some ways that these structures interact or depend on each other?

PLEASE NOTE: you may be influenced uniquely by one of the social structures/institutions, but if it only applies to you then that is ore psychology than sociology.  Sociology would be the ways that these structures shape people within our society similarly.

Conflict Paradigm

Look at your responses that might result in opportunities or obstacles (esp. social class, race, sex, gender, sexuality, 

5.  Using the demographic survey, what are some of the social groups that have led to you either having advantages or facing obstacles in your life? Can you cite specific examples?

Symbolic Interaction

Look. at your responses to what your plans are after college, what you are passionate about, what you are proud of and think about what meaning these hold to you and how that meaning relates to other people. Also, think about the meaning that your clothes, hair style, favorite music, hobbies, etc... creates for you and your interaction with other people.

6.  What are some ways that you create/display meaning with others around you?  

If you are having trouble with Symbolic Interaction, here is another example.

Chicago and the Foundation of Sociology

Chicago was a central player in the early establishment of sociology. Chicago was the fastest growing city in the USA during the late 1800s/early 1900s.  The city was an incredible mix of industrial growth, urbanization and immigration.  And so, the University of Chicago was the first sociology department in North America (1892) and Chicago was a leader in sociology for the next 50 years leading to what became known as "the Chicago School" of sociology.

Loyola University Chicago

Loyola followed shortly behind U of C in sociology.  The School of Sociology was one of LUC's earliest departments established in 1914.  This was a 2 year program that allowed women to earn a degree at a time when they were still not permitted in other areas of the university such as the College of Arts and Sciences. Jesuit Frederic Siedenburg was influenced about the importance of sociology's role in the progress of society and he not only established the School of Sociology, but he also became 

"... one of Chicago's most significant civic leaders over the next two decades...and he routinely crossed denominational, ethnic, and racial boundaries in his dealings, and he never wavered from his belief that religion could be a progressive force in urban life. In 1915, the Chicago Tribune commented on Siedenburg's role with the American Peace Federation, his appearance with Rabbi Emil Hirsch at Sinai Temple, and his visit to Tuskegee Institute as the guest of philanthropist Julius Rosenwald along with Jane Addams of Hull-House and the Reverend Jenkin Lloyd Jones, a Unitarian minister ... He also found time to publish ground-breaking articles in the American Journal of Sociology, including 'The Recreational Value of Religion (1922), 'The Religious Value of Social Work (1922), and 'War and the Catholic Church' (1925)." 

- Ellen Skerrett (2008). Born in Chicago. Loyola Press, Chicago

HW: Read Gang Leader for a Day (excerpt) Chapter 1: How Does It Feel to Be Black and Poor. (For background info, see this post about Chicago Housing Projects Leader for a Day.)

This is the introductory chapter of Venkatesh’s book, Gang Leader for a Day. As you read the chapter, look for all of the ways that Venkatesh gathers data and attempts to study race and poverty. NOTE: there is offensive language in the chapter which Venkatesh included in order to preserve the authenticity of his interactions with the people he meets. Please do not take the use of this language as making light of the offensivesness of this language.